Neither has found favour with other specialists and neither explains the loss of the preface from the textual tradition in all but two manuscripts. However, Harleian MS cannot be close to the archetype and the entire hypothesis fails without need for detailed refutation. I think it therefore much more acceptable to agree that the name of Ninnius or 'Nennius', was already known to them as author of the text. But to be completely correct, I am using the name of 'Nennius'.
Who was 'Nennius'? The sources point to his multilingualism, which means he may have been an interpreter working for the court. We can imagine him accompanying royal missions abroad, opportunities for laying contacts and getting access to foreign source material, which we indeed find in the composite nature of the Historia Brittonum. That he often failed only proves that his professionalism was not of such a high level as we and no doubt he would have liked it to be.
He made mistakes with dating schemes, he interchanged people with similar names but from different periods, and he would have needed help with genealogical material. He may have been lacking in skills, but the glimpse he provides on early British history no matter how legendary or folkloristic is the earliest we get, and therefore absolutely unique. The Historia Brittonum may be briefly analysed as follows:.
The sources for the late 4 th to the 7 th century are considered almost all either made up from legendary material, regnal lists, genealogies, catalogue poems, hagiographical or folkloristic. All these show the signs of mediaeval scholarship: origin-legend, systematic pedigrees, battle-catalogues, hagiography and synchronisation.
In short, we can only use them with extreme caution and under constant doubt. Nevertheless, to disregard this material just for that reason alone means taking an easy way out and not doing the text enough justice. I have gone further into such minimalism in my article about discussing history. The Historia Brittonum is therefore a highly composite work, and very divergent views have been and are still held as to its historicity and its value.
Though much work has been done on the history of the Historia Brittonum itself, as a source it almost invariably falls short of sources like Gildas and Bede in the minds of modern critics. The chief consideration is as follows:.
These opinions are held by the authors we owe a large debt for their admirable work on critical editions of the Historia Brittonum , namely Ferdinand Lot and more recently David Dumville. I regret that I cannot accept their views on the value of the Historia Brittonum in any respect, because in my view and that of others these are largely based on an overvaluation of Bede and his use of Gildas.
Even though the material for the th centuries cannot be relied on without great caution, the Historia Brittonum is the only sources which give us anything at all. The material for the 7 th century is less shaky, and can be corrected because of the English material. It is the th centuries that the Historia Brittonum provides the most value, as a source for the general cultural history of the time.
Cultural connections with Ireland and England were slowly strengthening by that time, where none had been before the Easter-controversy was resolved in the later 8 th century.
However, Welsh learning at the time led to a cultural superiority that strangely enough matched the political domination by Wessex during the late 9 th century. The Historia Brittonum or rather a Welsh revision was just then transmitted back to England, where a revival of learning was just under way.
The rewriting of that revision led to the Vatican recension , which provided material to English literature, making the circle complete. All rights reserved. I have learned another account of this Brutus from the ancient books of our ancestors. Hisicion had four sons, Francus, Romanus, Alamanus, and Brutus.
Neugio had three sons, Vandalus, Saxo, and Boganus. The whole of Europe was subdivided into these tribes. We have obtained this information respecting the original inhabitants of Britain from ancient tradition.
Then Julius Caesar, the first who had acquired absolute power at Rome, highly incensed against the Britons, sailed with sixty vessels to the mouth of the Thames, where they suffered shipwreck whilst he fought against Dolobellus, the proconsul of the British king, who was called Belinus, and who was the son of Minocannus who governed all the islands of the Tyrrhene Sea , and thus Julius Caesar returned home without victory, having had his soldiers Slain, and his ships shattered.
But after three years he again appeared with a large army, and three hundred ships, at the mouth of the Thames, where he renewed hostilities. In this attempt many of his soldiers and horses were killed; for the same consul had placed iron pikes in the shallow part of the river, and this having been effected with so much skill and secrecy as to escape the notice of the Roman soldiers, did them considerable injury; thus Caesar was once more compelled to return without peace or victory.
The Romans were, therefore, a third time sent against the Britons; and under the command of Julius, defeated them near a place called Trinovantum London , forty-seven years before the birth of Christ, and five thousand two hundred and twelve years from the creation.
Julius was the first exercising supreme power over the Romans who invaded Britain: in honour of him the Romans decreed the fifth month to be called after his name. He was assassinated in the Curia, in the ides of March, and Octavius Augustus succeeded to the empire of the world. He was the only emperor who received tribute from the Britons, according to the following verse of Virgil: "Purpurea intexti tollunt aulaea Britanni.
The second after him, who came into Britain, was the emperor Claudius, who reigned forty-seven years after the birth of Christ. He carried with him war and devastation; and, though not without loss of men, he at length conquered Britain. He next sailed to the Orkneys, which he likewise conquered, and afterwards rendered tributary. No tribute was in his time received from the Britons; but it was paid to British emperors.
He reigned thirteen years and eight months. His monument is to be seen at Moguntia among the Lombards , where he died in his way to Rome. After the birth of Christ, one hundred and sixty-seven years, king Lucius, with all the chiefs of the British people, received baptism, in consequence of a legation sent by the Roman emperors and pope Evaristus. Severus was the third emperor who passed the sea to Britain, where, to protect the provinces recovered from barbaric incursions, he ordered a wall and a rampart to be made between the Britons, the Scots, and the Picts, extending across the island from sea to sea, in length one hundred and thirty-three miles: and it is called in the British language Gwal.
Not long after Severus dies in Britain. The fourth was the emperor and tyrant, Carausius, who, incensed at the murder of Severus, passed into Britain, and attended by the leaders of the Roman people, severely avenged upon the chiefs and rulers of the Britons, the cause of Severus.
The fifth was Constantius the father of Constantine the Great. He died in Britain; his sepulchre, as it appears by the inscription on his tomb, is still seen near the city named Cair segont near Carnarvon. Upon the pavement of the above-mentioned city he sowed three seeds of gold, silver and brass, that no poor person might ever be found in it.
It is also called Minmanton. Maximianus 1 was the sixth emperor that ruled in Britain. It was in his time that consuls 2 began, and that the appellation of Caesar was discontinued: at this period also, St. Martin became celebrated for his virtues and miracles, and held a conversation with him.
The seventh emperor was Maximus. He withdrew from Britain with all his military force, slew Gratian, the king of the Romans, and obtained the sovereignty of all Europe. Unwilling to send back his warlike companions to their wives, children, and possessions in Britain, he conferred upon them numerous districts from the lake on the summit of Mons Jovis, to the city called Cant Guic, and to the western Tumulus, that is, to Cruc Occident.
In consequence of their absence, Britain being overcome by foreign nations, the lawful heirs were cast out, till God interposed with his assistance. We are informed by the tradition of our ancestors that seven emperors went into Britain, though the Romans affirm there were nine. Thus, aggreeably to the account given by the Britons, the Romans governed them four hundred and nine years.
After this, the Britons despised the authority of the Romans, equally refusing to pay them tribute, or to receive their kings; nor durst the Romans any longer attempt the government of a country, the natives of which massacred their deputies.
We must now return to the tyrant Maximus. Gratian, with his brother Valentinian, reigned seven years. Ambrose, bishop of Milan, was then eminent for his skill in the dogmata of the Catholics. Valentinianus and Theodosius reigned eight years.
At that time a synod was held at Constantinople, attended by three hundred and fifty of the fathers, and in which all heresies were condemned. Jerome, the presbyter of Bethlehem, was then universally celebrated. Whilst Gratian exercised supreme dominion over the world, Maximus, in a sedition of the soldiers, was saluted emperor in Britain, and soon after crossed the sea to Gaul.
At Paris, by the treachery of Mellobaudes, his master of the horse, Gratian was defeated and fleeing to Lyons, was taken and put to death; Maximus afterwards associated his son victor in the government. Martin, distinguished for his great virtues, was at this period bishop of Tours. After a considerable space of time, Maximus was divested of royal power by the consuls Valentinianus and Theodosius, and sentenced to be beheaded at the third mile-stone from Aquileia: in the same year also his son Victor was killed in Gaul by Arbogastes, five thousand six hundred and ninety years from the creation of the world.
Thrice were the Roman deputies put to death by the Britons, and yet these, when harassed by the incursions of the barbarous nations, viz. Of the Scots and Picts, earnestly solicited the aid of the Romans. To give effect to their entreaties, ambassadors were sent, who made their entrance with impressions of deep sorrow, having their heads covered with dust, and carrying rich presents, to expiate the murder of the deputies. They were favourably received by the consuls, and swore submission to the Roman yoke, with whatever severity it might be imposed.
The Romans, therefore, came with a powerful army to the assistance of the Britons; and having appointed over them a ruler, and settled the government, returned to Rome: and this took place alternately during the space of three hundred and forty-eight years.
The Britons, however, from the oppression of the empire, again massacred The Roman deputies, and again petitioned for succour. Once more the Romans undertook the government of the Britons, and assisted them in repelling their neighbours; and, after having exhausted the country of its gold, silver, brass, honey, and costly vestments, and having besides received rich gifts, they returned in great triumph to Rome.
After the above-said war between the Britons and Romans, the assassination of their rulers, and the victory of Maximus, who slew Gratian, and the termination of the Roman power in Britain, they were in alarm forty years. Vortigern then reigned in Britain. In his time, the natives had cause of dread, not only from the inroads of the Scots and Picts, but also from the Romans, and their apprehensions of Ambrosius. In the meantime, three vessels, exiled from Germany, arrived in Britain.
They were commanded by Horsa and Hengist, brothers, and sons of Wihtgils. Wihtgils was the son of Witta; Witta of Wecta; Wecta of Woden; Woden of Frithowald; Frithowald of Frithuwulf; Frithuwulf of Finn; Finn of Godwulf; Godwulf of Geat, who, as they say, was the son of a god, not 1 of the omnipotent God and our Lord Jesus Christ who before the beginning of the world, was with the Father and the Holy Spirit, co-eternal and of the same substance, and who, in compassion to human nature, disdained not to assume the form of a servant , but the offspring of one of their idols, and whom, blinded by some demon, they worshipped according to the custom of the heathen.
Vortigern received them as friends, and delivered up to them the island which is in their language called Thanet, and, by the Britons, Ruym. The Saxons were received by Vortigern, four hundred and forty-seven years after the passion of Christ, and, 3 according to the tradition of our ancestors, from the period of their first arrival in Britain, to the first year of the reign of king Edmund, five hundred and forty-two years; and to that in which we now write, which is the fifth of his reign, five hundred and forty-seven years.
At that time St. Germanus, distinguished for his numerous virtues, came to preach in Britain: by his ministry many were saved; but many likewise died unconverted. Of the various miracles which God enabled him to perform, I shall here mention only a few: I shall first advert to that concerning an iniquitous and tyrannical king, named Benlli. When the man of God, with his attendants, arrived at the gate of the city, they were respectfully received by the keeper of it, who came out and saluted them.
Him they commissioned to communicate their intention to the king, who returned a harsh answer, declaring, with an oath, that although they remained there a year, they should not enter the city. While waiting for an answer, the evening came on, and they knew not where to go. At length, came one of the king's servants, who bowing himself before the man of God, announced the words of the tyrant, inviting them, at the same time, to his own house, to which they went, and were kindly received.
It happened, however, that he had no cattle, except one cow and a calf, the latter of which, urged by generous hospitality to his guests, he killed, dressed and set before them.
But holy St. Germanus ordered his companions not to break a bone of the calf; and, the next morning, it was found alive uninjured, and standing by its mother. Early the same day, they again went to the gate of the city, to solicit audience of the wicked king; and, whilst engaged in fervent prayer they were waiting for admission, a man, covered with sweat, came out, and prostrated himself before them. Then St. Germanus, addressing him, said "Dost thou believe in the Holy Trinity?
In the meantime, St. Germanus, with his attendants, waited the whole day before the gate, without obtaining admission to the tyrant. And through the power of our Lord Jesus Christ and through the power of the blessed Virgin Mary his mother there was great slaughter among them. The ninth battle was waged in the City of the Legion. The tenth battle was waged on the banks of a river which is called Tribruit. The eleventh battle was fought on the mountain which is called Agnet.
The twelfth battle was on Mount Badon in which there fell in one day men from one charge by Arthur; and no one struck them down except Arthur himself, and in all the wars he emerged as victor. And while they were being defeated in all the battles, they were seeking assistance from Germany and their numbers were being augmented many times over without interruption.
And they brought over kings from Germany that they might reign over them in Britain, right down to the time in which Ida reigned, who was son of Eobba.
He was the first king in Bernicia, i. Most of these battle sites are obscure and cannot be identified. Some of the battles appear in other Welsh literature, though not all are connected explicitly with Arthur. Some scholars have proposed that the author took the list from a now-lost Old Welsh poem which listed Arthur's twelve great victories, based on the fact that some of the names appear to rhyme and the suggestion that the odd description of Arthur bearing the image of the Virgin Mary on his shoulders at Guinnion might contain a confusion of the Welsh word iscuit shield for iscuid shoulders.
A similar story to that attached to Guinnion also appears in the Annales Cambriae ; here, Arthur is described as carrying "the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ on his shoulders for three days and three nights…," though here the battle is said to be Badon rather than Guinnon. Charles-Edwards argues that these accounts both refer to a single source.
Higham, argue that the Annales account is based directly on the Historia , in which case the name of the battle would have been switched from the unknown Guinnon to the famous Badon, and the icon Arthur carries replaced with a more common one. The Battle of Mount Badon is associated with Arthur in several later texts, but not in any that predate the Historia.
Here it is associated with cinbin , or dogheads ; Arthur's men fight them in the mountains of Eidyn Edinburgh and spar with a character named Garwlwyd Rough-Gray , who is likely identical with the Gwrgi Garwlwyd Man-Dog Rough-Grey who appears in one of the Welsh Triads. Scholar Marged Haycock has suggested this battle can be identified with the Cad Goddeu , the "Battle of the Trees," best known from the tenth-century poem Cad Goddeu.
Various writers have asserted that this chapter supports a historical basis for King Arthur and have tried to identify the twelve battles with historical feuds or locales see Sites and places associated with Arthurian legend.
However, scholar Thomas Green argues that the fact that the only identifiable battles linked explicitly with Arthur in Old Welsh sources are exclusively mythological undermines any claims that the battles had a basis in history. Attached to the Historia is a section called De mirabilibus britanniae or simply Mirabilia in shorhand.
It gives a list of 13 topological marvels, or wonders of Britain, [36] [37] followed by a few marvels of Anglesey Menand insulae or Mona and of Ireland. The Mirabilia section is thought to be not part of the original work, [39] but is believed to have been composed shortly after, [40] and is attached to many, though not all of the manuscripts.
Two of the marvels are Arthurian lore Chapter 73 of the Historia. It might be worth noting that old editions give "Troynt" as the name of the great boar and "Anir" as the name of Arthur's tragic son, from the Harleian manuscript, but Fletcher suggested the variant readings "Troit" and "Amr" be preferred [41] since they are closer to the Welsh forms of those names. There is another marvel in the region which is called Buelt. There is a mound of stones there and one stone placed above the pile with the pawprint of a dog in it.
When Cabal, who was the dog of Arthur the soldier, was hunting the boar Troynt, he impressed his print in the stone, and afterwards Arthur assembled a stone mound under the stone with the print of his dog, and it is called the Carn Cabal.
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